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| 1. The French Revolution | 2. Socialism In Europe And The Russian Revolution | 3. Nazism And The Rise Of Hitler |
| 4. Forest Society And Colonialism | 5. Pastoralists In The Modern World | |
Chapter 2 Socialism In Europe And The Russian Revolution
The Age Of Social Change
Following the French Revolution, powerful concepts of freedom and equality circulated in Europe, sparking discussions about dramatically altering the structure of society. Before the 18th century, society was typically divided into estates or orders, with significant economic and social power held by the aristocracy and the Church. The revolution suggested that fundamental change to this system was possible.
Across Europe and Asia, debates emerged regarding individual rights and the distribution of social power. In India, figures like Raja Rammohan Roy and Derozio acknowledged the importance of the French Revolution, while many others engaged with the new ideas spreading from post-revolutionary Europe. Developments in colonial regions also influenced these evolving concepts of societal change.
However, there was no universal agreement in Europe on the desired level of transformation. Responses ranged from those favouring gradual change to those advocating for a complete societal overhaul. These different viewpoints were often categorised as conservatives, liberals, or radicals. It is important to note that the meanings of these terms could vary depending on the context and time period.
The 19th century witnessed clashes between these differing political ideologies amidst social and political upheaval. Various revolutionary movements and attempts at national transformation during this era helped clarify the potential and limitations of each political tendency.
Liberals, Radicals And Conservatives
These groups represented distinct political perspectives on how society should change:
- Liberals:
- Desired a nation that tolerated all religions, contrasting with the state-sponsored religious discrimination common in Europe at the time (e.g., Britain favoring the Church of England, Spain/Austria the Catholic Church).
- Opposed the unchecked authority of dynastic rulers.
- Sought to protect individual rights from government interference.
- Advocated for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
- Believed this government should be subject to laws interpreted by an independent and well-trained judiciary.
- Crucially, they were not democrats in the modern sense. They did not support universal adult franchise (the right of every adult citizen to vote). They generally felt that voting should primarily be restricted to men of property and did not favour voting rights for women.
- Radicals:
- Wanted a nation where the government was based on the majority population of the country.
- Many supported women's suffragette movements (movements seeking voting rights for women).
- Unlike liberals, they opposed the privileges held by large landowners and wealthy factory owners.
- While not necessarily against private property itself, they strongly disliked the concentration of property in the hands of a few individuals.
- Conservatives:
- Initially, conservatives in the 18th century were generally opposed to the idea of change.
- After the French Revolution, even conservatives began to accept that some change was necessary.
- By the 19th century, they acknowledged that change was inevitable but insisted that the past should be respected and that change should occur through a slow and gradual process.
Industrial Society And Social Change
These political discussions occurred alongside significant social and economic transformations. This period saw the growth of new cities and industrialised regions, the expansion of railways, and the emergence of the Industrial Revolution.
Industrialisation led to large numbers of men, women, and children moving to work in factories. Working conditions were often harsh, with long hours and low wages. Unemployment was a common issue, especially during economic downturns.
Rapid urban growth resulted in severe problems with housing and sanitation in the new industrial towns. Liberals and radicals were actively seeking solutions to these pressing social issues.
Most industries were owned privately by individuals, who were often the same liberals and radicals who had made their wealth through trade or industrial ventures. They believed in encouraging individual effort, labour, and enterprise, arguing that societal development would follow if individuals had freedom, the poor could work, and capitalists could operate without restrictions. They were opposed to the birth-based privileges of the aristocracy.
Many working-class individuals who desired societal change supported liberal and radical groups in the early 19th century.
Some nationalists, liberals, and radicals advocated for revolutions to overthrow the monarchical governments re-established in Europe after 1815. They became revolutionaries in places like France, Italy, Germany, and Russia, working to create 'nations' where all citizens would have equal rights. For example, the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini inspired others, including those in India, with his writings and conspiracies aimed at unifying Italy.
The Coming Of Socialism To Europe
One of the most transformative visions for restructuring society was socialism. By the mid-19th century, socialism had become a prominent set of ideas in Europe, attracting widespread attention.
Socialists were fundamentally opposed to private property, viewing it as the source of many societal problems. Their reasoning was that private owners of property, who employed others, were primarily concerned with their own profits rather than the well-being of the workers who generated that profit. Socialists argued that if property were controlled by society as a whole instead of individuals, greater attention would be paid to the collective social interests. They actively campaigned for this change.
Socialists held different ideas about how a society without private property might function and what its foundation would be:
- Some believed in cooperatives. Robert Owen (1771-1858), an English manufacturer, attempted to create a cooperative community called New Harmony in the USA.
- Other socialists felt that individual initiative alone was insufficient to establish cooperatives on a large scale. They advocated for governments to actively encourage and support cooperatives.
- In France, Louis Blanc (1813-1882) wanted the government to promote cooperatives and eventually replace capitalist enterprises. These cooperatives were envisioned as associations where people produced goods collectively and shared profits based on the work contributed by members.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) significantly contributed to socialist thought:
- Marx argued that industrial society was based on capitalism. Capitalists owned the factories and invested capital, while workers produced the profit.
- He contended that the conditions of workers could not improve as long as this profit was accumulated by private capitalists.
- Marx believed that workers needed to overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property to free themselves from exploitation.
- He envisioned a radically socialist society where all property was controlled socially, which he termed a communist society.
- Marx was confident that workers would eventually triumph over capitalists and that a communist society represented the natural progression of the future.
Support For Socialism
Socialist ideas gained traction across Europe by the 1870s. Socialists formed an international organisation, the Second International, to coordinate their efforts globally.
Workers in countries like England and Germany established associations to campaign for better living and working conditions. These associations created funds to support members facing hardship, pushed for reduced working hours, and demanded the right to vote.
In Germany, these workers' associations collaborated closely with the Social Democratic Party (SPD), helping it win parliamentary seats. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists in Britain formed the Labour Party, and a Socialist Party was formed in France.
Despite gaining influence and representation in parliamentary politics, socialist parties were generally unable to form governments in Europe before 1914. However, their ideas did influence legislation. Governments largely remained under the control of conservatives, liberals, and radicals.
*(The painting shows a scene from the Paris Commune of 1871, a brief period where Parisian workers and citizens formed a 'peoples' government'. Although suppressed, it was celebrated by socialists as a precursor to revolution. The Commune is associated with the workers' red flag and the adoption of the Marseillaise as a symbol of struggle.)*
The Russian Revolution
Unlike most industrialised European states, Russia experienced a complete reversal of the existing order. Socialists successfully seized control of the government through the October Revolution of 1917. The events leading to this included the fall of the monarchy in February 1917, collectively known as the Russian Revolution.
Understanding the social and political conditions in Russia in the years leading up to 1917 is crucial to explaining how the revolution occurred.
The Russian Empire In 1914
In 1914, the Russian Empire was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II. It was a vast territory encompassing not only the area around Moscow but also modern-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Central Asian states, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, stretching to the Pacific Ocean.
The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity (an offshoot of the Greek Orthodox Church), but the empire was religiously diverse, including Catholics, Protestants, Muslims (like the Jadidists), and Buddhists.
Economy And Society
At the start of the 20th century, the Russian Empire was predominantly agricultural. Around 85% of the population made their living from farming, a significantly higher proportion than in major European countries like France or Germany (40-50%). Russian cultivators produced both for their own needs and for the market, making Russia a major grain exporter.
Industrial activity was concentrated in specific areas, notably St Petersburg and Moscow. While many goods were still produced by craftsmen in workshops, large factories also existed, and their number grew significantly in the 1890s due to the expansion of the railway network and increased foreign investment. Coal production doubled, and iron/steel output quadrupled. By the 1900s, in some industrial centres, factory workers were nearly equal in number to craftsmen.
Most industrial enterprises were privately owned. The government did supervise large factories, aiming to enforce minimum wages and limit working hours, but factory inspectors often struggled to prevent violations.
Working days could be as long as 15 hours in craft units and small workshops, compared to 10-12 hours in larger factories. Accommodation for workers varied widely, from single rooms to crowded dormitories.
The working population was not homogeneous. Some workers maintained strong connections to their rural villages, while others had permanently settled in cities. Workers were also divided by skill; metalworkers, for instance, considered themselves superior due to the training and skill required for their jobs. Women constituted 31% of the factory workforce by 1914 but were paid significantly less than men (typically half to three-quarters of a man's wage).
Divisions also existed in dress and manners. Despite these differences, workers often united to conduct strikes (stopping work) when dissatisfied with dismissals or working conditions. Strikes were frequent, particularly in the textile industry in 1896-97 and the metal industry in 1902.
In rural areas, peasants cultivated most of the land, but significant properties were owned by the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church.
Like workers, peasants were also divided and deeply religious. However, unlike their counterparts in the French Revolution, Russian peasants generally had little respect for the nobility. Nobles in Russia derived their power and status from service to the Tsar, not from local popularity or support.
Russian peasants strongly desired the land owned by the nobles to be transferred to them. They frequently refused to pay rent and, in some cases, even murdered landlords. Such incidents occurred on a large scale in southern Russia in 1902 and spread across the country in 1905.
A unique aspect of Russian peasants compared to other Europeans was their practice of periodically pooling their land together in a commune (known as 'mir') and then redistributing it based on the needs of individual families.
Socialism In Russia
Prior to 1914, all political parties were illegal in Russia due to the autocratic rule of the Tsar.
The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who admired Karl Marx's ideas. Operating illegally due to police repression, the party established a newspaper, mobilised workers, and organised strikes.
Some Russian socialists believed that the peasants' tradition of communal land division made them natural socialists. They argued that peasants, rather than industrial workers, would be the primary revolutionary force and that Russia could achieve socialism more quickly than other countries.
Socialists were active in the countryside from the late 19th century. They formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900, which championed peasant rights and demanded the transfer of land owned by nobles to the peasants.
The Social Democrats disagreed with the Socialist Revolutionaries regarding the role of peasants. Vladimir Lenin, a key figure in the Social Democrats (leading the Bolshevik faction), argued that peasants were not a unified group. He pointed out that some were poor, while others were wealthy capitalists who employed labourers. This internal differentiation meant they could not all participate in a single socialist movement.
The Social Democratic Party was also divided on organisational strategy. Lenin and the Bolshevik faction believed that in a repressive environment like Tsarist Russia, the party needed to be disciplined and control the membership's quality and numbers. The other faction, the Mensheviks, advocated for the party to be open to all members, similar to the model in Germany.
A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution
Unlike rulers in other European countries, the Tsar in Russia held autocratic power and was not accountable to a parliament even at the beginning of the 20th century. Liberals in Russia actively campaigned to end this autocratic rule.
Working with Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, liberals mobilised peasants and workers during the events of 1905 to demand a constitution. They were supported by nationalists within the empire (e.g., in Poland) and by Muslim reformers (Jadidists) in Muslim-dominated areas who sought a modernised Islam.
The year 1904 was particularly difficult for Russian workers. The rapid rise in the prices of essential goods caused their real wages (the purchasing power of their wages) to decline by 20%. Membership in workers' associations significantly increased.
When four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers (formed in 1904) were fired from the Putilov Iron Works, it sparked a call for industrial action. Over the following days, more than 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike, demanding an eight-hour working day, wage increases, and improved working conditions.
On a Sunday in January 1905, a procession of workers led by Father Gapon marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to the Tsar. They were attacked by the police and Cossacks. This brutal incident, known as Bloody Sunday, resulted in over 100 workers killed and around 300 wounded. Bloody Sunday triggered a wave of events that became known as the 1905 Revolution.
Strikes spread across the country. Universities closed as students staged walkouts protesting the lack of civil liberties. Professionals like lawyers, doctors, and engineers formed the Union of Unions, demanding the creation of a constituent assembly to draft a constitution.
In response to the widespread unrest, the Tsar reluctantly permitted the creation of an elected consultative parliament or Duma during the 1905 Revolution. For a short period, numerous trade unions and factory committees composed of workers emerged. However, after 1905, most of these became illegal and operated unofficially. Severe restrictions were placed on political activities.
The Tsar quickly showed his reluctance to cede power, dismissing the first Duma within 75 days and the second Duma within three months. Determined to maintain his authority, he altered voting laws and packed the third Duma with conservative politicians, excluding liberals and revolutionaries.
The First World War And The Russian Empire
In 1914, the First World War began, pitting the Central Powers (Germany, Austria, Turkey) against the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia, later Italy and Romania). As European empires clashed globally, the war extended beyond Europe.
Initially, the war was popular in Russia, with public support for Tsar Nicholas II. However, as the war dragged on, the Tsar's refusal to consult the main parties in the Duma eroded public support. Anti-German sentiment increased, leading to the renaming of St Petersburg (a German name) to Petrograd. The German heritage of Tsarina Alexandra and the negative influence of her advisor, the monk Rasputin, further damaged the autocracy's popularity.
The Eastern Front, where Russia fought, was different from the Western Front. While Western armies were entrenched, Eastern armies moved extensively and engaged in large-scale battles, resulting in massive casualties. Russia's armies suffered devastating defeats against Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916, with over 7 million casualties by 1917.
As Russian forces retreated, they employed a scorched-earth tactic, destroying crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from using them. This destruction displaced over 3 million refugees within Russia. The military failures and the refugee crisis severely discredited the government and the Tsar. Soldiers became unwilling to continue fighting.
The war also crippled Russian industry. Russia had few industries compared to other powers and was cut off from supply routes across the Baltic Sea by German forces. Industrial equipment deteriorated rapidly. By 1916, the railway system was failing. Able-bodied men were conscripted into the army, creating labour shortages and forcing the closure of small workshops producing essential goods.
Large quantities of grain were diverted to feed the army, leading to shortages of bread and flour in cities. By the winter of 1916, riots protesting bread shortages were commonplace.
The February Revolution In Petrograd
The winter of 1917 saw dire conditions in Petrograd, the capital. The city's layout reflected social divisions: workers' quarters and factories were mainly on the right bank of the River Neva, while the fashionable areas, the Winter Palace, and official buildings (including the Duma) were on the left bank.
Food shortages were acutely felt in the workers' districts, exacerbated by an exceptionally cold winter with heavy frost and snow.
Parliamentarians, who wished to preserve elected government, opposed the Tsar's intention to dissolve the Duma.
On February 22, a lockout at a factory on the right bank occurred. The following day, February 23 (celebrated later as International Women's Day), workers in fifty factories went on strike in solidarity. Women workers were prominent in leading these strikes.
Demonstrating workers crossed the Neva from the factory districts into the city centre. Although no political party was overtly leading the movement at this point, the government imposed a curfew as workers surrounded fashionable areas and official buildings. Demonstrators dispersed by evening but returned on the 24th and 25th. The government deployed cavalry and police to monitor them.
On Sunday, February 25, the government suspended the Duma, a move publicly criticised by politicians. Demonstrators returned in force on the 26th. On the 27th, the Police Headquarters were ransacked. The streets filled with people chanting slogans demanding "Bread, wages, better hours, and democracy!"
The government again attempted to control the situation with cavalry, but the cavalry refused to fire on the protestors. An officer was shot, and three regiments mutinied, siding with the striking workers. By that evening, soldiers and workers had gathered in the same building where the Duma met to form a 'soviet' or 'council', known as the Petrograd Soviet.
The next day, a delegation went to the Tsar. Facing overwhelming pressure and advised by military commanders, Tsar Nicholas II decided to abdicate on March 2, 1917.
Leaders from the Soviet and the Duma formed a Provisional Government to administer the country. It was decided that the future political structure of Russia would be determined by a constituent assembly elected based on universal adult suffrage.
The actions in Petrograd had successfully led the February Revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy in February 1917 (according to the Julian calendar then in use in Russia; this corresponds to March 12 in the Gregorian calendar used today).
After February
In the newly formed Provisional Government, figures from the army, landowners, and industrialists held considerable influence. However, both liberal and socialist members within it aimed towards establishing an elected government.
Restrictions on public meetings and associations were lifted, leading to the formation of 'Soviets' (councils) across the country, similar to the Petrograd Soviet, although their election methods varied.
In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile. Having opposed the First World War since 1914, Lenin now believed that the time was right for the Soviets to take power. He put forward three key demands, known as his 'April Theses':
- End the war.
- Transfer land ownership to the peasants.
- Nationalise the banks.
Lenin also proposed that the Bolshevik Party should be renamed the Communist Party to reflect its radical new objectives.
Initially, many within the Bolshevik Party were surprised by the April Theses, believing that a socialist revolution was premature and that the Provisional Government should be supported. However, events in the following months shifted their perspective.
Throughout the summer of 1917, the workers' movement expanded. Factory committees formed in industrial areas, beginning to challenge industrialists' control over their factories. Trade unions grew in number, and soldiers formed committees within the army.
In June, representatives from around 500 Soviets attended an All Russian Congress of Soviets.
As the Provisional Government's authority weakened and Bolshevik influence increased, the government attempted to suppress the growing discontent. It resisted workers' efforts to control factories and began arresting leaders. Pro-Bolshevik demonstrations in July 1917 were harshly put down, forcing many Bolshevik leaders into hiding or exile.
Meanwhile, in the countryside, peasants, encouraged by their Socialist Revolutionary leaders, intensified their demands for land redistribution. Land committees were formed to manage this process. Between July and September 1917, peasants began seizing land belonging to the nobility.
The Revolution Of October 1917
As the tension between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks escalated, Lenin grew concerned that the government would establish a dictatorship. In September, he initiated discussions among Bolsheviks about planning an armed uprising against the government. Bolshevik supporters in the army, Soviets, and factories were mobilised.
On October 16, 1917, Lenin successfully persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to endorse the idea of a socialist seizure of power. The Soviet appointed a Military Revolutionary Committee under the leadership of Leon Trotskii to organise the takeover. The exact date of the uprising was kept secret.
The uprising commenced on October 24. Anticipating trouble, Prime Minister Kerenskii left Petrograd to seek military support. Early that morning, pro-government forces seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers and were sent to secure telephone/telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.
The Military Revolutionary Committee responded swiftly, ordering its supporters to seize government buildings and arrest ministers. Later that day, the cruiser Aurora shelled the Winter Palace. Other naval vessels sailed down the Neva River, taking control of key military points. By nightfall, the city was largely under the committee's control, and the Provisional Government ministers had surrendered.
At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority of delegates approved the Bolshevik actions. Although there was heavy fighting in other cities, particularly Moscow, by December, the Bolsheviks had consolidated control over the Moscow-Petrograd region.
*(Note on Calendar Differences: Russia used the Julian calendar until February 1, 1918, which was 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar used today. Therefore, the 'February Revolution' occurred on March 12, and the 'October Revolution' took place on November 7 in the modern Gregorian calendar.)*
What Changed After October
Following the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks implemented fundamental changes to Russian society. They were strictly opposed to private property. In November 1917, they proceeded to nationalise most industries and banks, meaning ownership and management were transferred to the government.
Land was declared social property, and peasants were officially permitted to seize the land previously owned by the nobility. In urban areas, the Bolsheviks enforced the division of large houses based on the needs of families living in them. They also abolished the old aristocratic titles.
To symbolise the new order, new uniforms were designed for the army and officials. After a competition in 1918, the Soviet hat (known as the budeonovka) was selected.
The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). In November 1917, the Bolsheviks held elections for the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to secure a majority. In January 1918, the Assembly rejected the Bolsheviks' proposals, leading Lenin to dismiss it. Lenin argued that the All Russian Congress of Soviets was a more democratic body than an assembly elected under turbulent conditions.
Despite opposition from some political allies, the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, ending Russia's involvement in World War I.
In the subsequent years, the Bolsheviks became the only party allowed to participate in elections for the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the country's parliament. Russia effectively became a one-party state.
Trade unions were brought under the control of the Party. A secret police force (initially called the Cheka, later OGPU and NKVD) was established to suppress dissent and punish critics of the Bolsheviks.
Many young artists and writers initially supported the Party due to its socialist ideals and promise of change. This led to artistic and architectural experimentation after October 1917. However, some became disillusioned by the increasing censorship imposed by the Party.
The Civil War
When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army, largely composed of peasants eager to claim their land, began to disintegrate as soldiers deserted.
The Bolshevik uprising was condemned by non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and supporters of the former autocracy ('Whites'). Their leaders organised military forces in southern Russia to fight against the Bolsheviks ('Reds').
During 1918 and 1919, the 'Greens' (Socialist Revolutionaries) and 'Whites' controlled significant portions of the former Russian Empire. These anti-Bolshevik forces received support from international powers, including French, American, British, and Japanese troops, who were concerned about the spread of socialism from Russia.
As the Bolsheviks fought this Civil War against the 'Greens' and 'Whites' (backed by foreign forces), the country descended into chaos marked by looting, banditry, and famine.
The 'Whites', who supported private property, took harsh retaliatory measures against peasants who had seized land. This treatment alienated the peasantry and caused the non-Bolshevik forces to lose popular support.
By January 1920, the Bolsheviks had gained control over most of the former Russian Empire. Their success was partly attributed to cooperation with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim Jadidists. However, cooperation was difficult in areas where Russian colonists had become Bolsheviks and acted brutally against local populations in the name of socialism, such as the massacre of local nationalists in Khiva, Central Asia.
These actions created confusion among many about the true nature of the Bolshevik government.
To address this partly, the Bolsheviks granted political autonomy to most non-Russian nationalities within the new state they created from the Russian Empire in December 1922, called the Soviet Union (USSR). However, this was combined with unpopular policies, such as forcefully discouraging nomadic lifestyles, limiting the success of efforts to win over diverse nationalities.
Making A Socialist Society
During the Civil War, the Bolsheviks maintained the nationalisation of industries and banks. They allowed peasants to farm the socialised land, using confiscated land as models for demonstrating collective farming practices.
A system of centralised planning was introduced. Government officials assessed the economy's needs and set production targets for specific periods, typically five years, resulting in the creation of Five Year Plans. During the first two Plans (1927-1932 and 1933-1938), the government fixed all prices to encourage industrial growth. This led to significant economic growth, with industrial production (like oil, coal, and steel) increasing by 100% between 1929 and 1933. New industrial cities rapidly developed.
However, this rapid construction often came at the cost of poor working conditions. For instance, building a steel plant in Magnitogorsk in three years resulted in difficult lives for workers and numerous work stoppages in the first year. Living conditions were harsh, with instances of workers having to descend multiple floors in severe cold just to use a toilet.
The Soviet government also expanded the schooling system, making arrangements for workers and peasants to attend universities. Crèches were established in factories for the children of working women, and cheap public healthcare was provided. Model living quarters were sometimes built for workers. The impact of these social measures was inconsistent due to limited government resources.
Stalinism And Collectivisation
The early period of the Planned Economy coincided with the disastrous policy of collectivisation of agriculture. By 1927-1928, Soviet towns faced severe shortages of grain supplies. The government fixed prices for grain, but peasants refused to sell at these low prices.
Stalin, who had taken leadership of the Party after Lenin's death, implemented firm emergency measures. He believed that wealthy peasants and traders ("kulaks") were hoarding grain to drive up prices. To combat this, speculation was targeted, and grain supplies were confiscated.
In 1928, Party members were sent to grain-producing regions to supervise forced grain collections and raid the homes of 'kulaks' (the term for well-to-do peasants).
As grain shortages persisted, the decision was made to collectivise farms. The official argument was that grain shortages were partly caused by the small size of peasant landholdings (which had been distributed after 1917), making modernisation difficult. To develop modern, mechanised farms, it was deemed necessary to "eliminate kulaks," confiscate land from peasants, and create large, state-controlled collective farms.
Stalin's collectivisation program began in 1929. The Party forced all peasants to work on collective farms (kolkhoz). The majority of land and farming equipment were transferred to the ownership of the collective farms. Peasants worked on the land, and the profits from the kolkhoz were shared.
Enraged peasants resisted collectivisation fiercely, often destroying their livestock rather than handing them over. Between 1929 and 1931, the number of cattle plummeted by one-third. Those who resisted were brutally punished, with many being deported (forcibly removed from their country) or exiled (forced to live away from their country).
Resisting peasants argued they were not wealthy and supported socialism but simply opposed working in collective farms for various personal reasons. Although Stalin's government allowed some independent farming, these cultivators were treated harshly.
Despite the brutal implementation, agricultural production did not increase immediately. In fact, a series of bad harvests between 1930 and 1933 resulted in one of the most devastating famines in Soviet history, claiming the lives of over 4 million people.
Within the Party, criticisms arose regarding the inefficiencies of industrial production under centralised planning and the severe consequences of collectivisation. Stalin and his allies responded by accusing these critics of conspiring against socialism.
These accusations led to widespread purges throughout the country. By 1939, over 2 million people were imprisoned in prisons or labor camps. Many were innocent but were forced to make false confessions under torture and subsequently executed, including numerous talented professionals.
The Global Influence Of The Russian Revolution And The USSR
Existing socialist parties in Europe held mixed views on the methods used by the Bolsheviks to seize and retain power, not fully endorsing their approach. However, the idea of a state run by workers captivated people's imaginations worldwide.
Communist parties were formed in many countries, such as the Communist Party of Great Britain, inspired by the Russian example. The Bolsheviks actively encouraged people in colonies to follow their revolutionary path.
Many non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in events like the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) and the Comintern (Communist International), an international organisation of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties founded by the Bolsheviks. Some received education at the USSR's Communist University of the Workers of the East.
By the start of the Second World War, the USSR had significantly raised the global profile and stature of socialism.
The Russian Revolution had a notable impact in India. Many Indians were inspired by it, and several attended the Communist University in the USSR. By the mid-1920s, the Communist Party was formed in India, maintaining ties with the Soviet Communist Party.
Prominent Indian political and cultural figures, including Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore, showed interest in the Soviet experiment, visiting Russia and writing about Soviet Socialism. Various writings in Indian languages provided impressions of Soviet Russia.
However, by the 1950s, it became increasingly apparent even within the USSR that the government's style was deviating from the original ideals of the Revolution. Within the global socialist movement, there was a growing recognition that conditions in the Soviet Union were not ideal.
While the USSR had transformed from a backward country into a major power, developing industries and agriculture and providing for the poor, it had also severely restricted the essential freedoms of its citizens and implemented its development policies through repressive means, such as the purges and forced collectivisation.
By the end of the 20th century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist state had declined significantly, although the underlying socialist ideals continued to hold respect among its own population. Across the world, the concept of socialism was reinterpreted and adapted in numerous different ways in various countries.